Discussion questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion questions - Essay ExampleGiven the economic conditions today, I would draw out an expansionary fiscal policy. This is because money in circulation in the market is less, which has discouraged spending, and thus the businesses are performing poorly. An expansionary fiscal policy cast ups flow of money in the economy, which favours factors of production. This helps increase production, which in turn increases the demand for labour. The rate of unemployment goes down as more people get job opportunities in the job market.The government faces a cypher deficit when there is more government spending than the collected revenue. The government should therefore raise taxes, reduce government spending, and sell government bonds and treasury bills as a measure to correct the deficit. Riley claims, Higher government borrowings today mean that taxes will have to rise in the future (Riley web). However, this will reduce the expendable income hence constraining the economy more than expand it. The government should decrease spending as a way of correcting a deficit budget if it seeks for a long-term

Four foods common throughout Mexico Essay Example for Free

Four foods common throughout Mexico EssayCorn, and corn tortillas in divulgeicular, ar common throughout all of Mexico. Corn tortillas be considered the bread of Mexican culture. Beans be almost always served as a side distribute with all meals. Chilies, squash and tomatoes be all indigenous foods that thrive in the arid regions and are used for flavoring and as side dishes throughout the country. Chilies are also often integrated into main dishes. B. Comparison and Contrast of foods from three regions of Mexico Food from the Mexican plains region is typically more heavy with fats and starches. The regions cuisine relies on meat and dairy products (most notably beef and cheese) in addition to the traditional beans and corn put up elsewhere throughout the country. Tropical Mexico relies hard on the fish and seafood that are abundant along the coast for its main dishes. It also incorporates food locally grown on plantations such as coffee, bananas, avocado, limes, tomatoes and tropical fruits such as mango, tamarind and coconut. Ceviche, a blend of raw fish, lime juice and vegetables, is very popular. Southern Mexican cuisine uses chayotes and cactus and relies heavily on yellowish dishes, often marinated.Mole sauce, using chilies and chocolate originated in Southern Mexico and is used as a ceremonial dish at baptisms, weddings, and the Day of the Dead festivals. withal grasshoppers, which are quite abundant, are often eaten fried. Beans and avocados are also used in many dishes. Meat from goats and pork along with chilies and tortillas are often found in dishes from all regions. chocolate and vanilla are two items that put Mexico on the map and quite popular throughout the country as flavorings. Chocolate is used in sauces as well as for drinking and often infused with cinnamon.Mexican cuisine is very reliant on the food sources most abundant in the region and so range the gamut from seafood to cactus. 6. Comparison and Contrast of food and custo ms of Indias Northern and Southern regions In Northern India wheat, tea, masala, pickled fruits and vegetables, ail and eggs are commonly used. Most dishes are prepared by boiling, stewing or frying. Unleavened bread and a vegetable dish are served at breakfast and lunch. Dinner is the same with the additional of a few extra dishes. All meals are served with tea and lemonade in the summer.Hydrogenated oils are used for cooking. In Southern India, banana leaves serve as plates and boiled rice comes with every course. Vegetables and lentils make up the first two courses while rice and yogurt are in the third course. All are accompanied by pickles, chutney and fried wafers. Dessert is only served on special occasions. Coconut, plantain and fish are often used and tend to be spicy. They use peanut and sesame oil in addition to hydrogenated vegetable oil and prepare dishes by steaming. Rice, coffee, chutney fruits and vegetables are integral to the cuisine.Grains cooked into cereals are popular. Chickpeas and lentils are used in nearly every meal. Spicy vegetable curries, deep-fried, salty foods and sweets are popular as snacks. The foods of both regions are highly vegetarian, per religious beliefs. Neither region eats beef nor traditionally drinks alcohol. The spicinesss and condiments heavy in Southern Indian cuisine are the becharm of Jews and Christians. In the North, wheat is the staple food while rice reigns in the South. Northern Indians drink tea with their meals while Southern Indians prefer coffee.Since Pakistan was once part of India, the cuisine of the Northern region is very similar to that of Pakistani food. The foods of both regions are influenced heavily by their respective religions as well as the inflow of foreign traders in earlier centuries. 7. A. Five foods indigenous to Caribbean In Jamaica, dukunnu is made with cornmeal, sugar, raisins spices and coconut and wrapped in banana leaves and boiled or baked. Jamaica also uses let go cornmeal m ade of cornmeal blended with peas, spices, coconut milk, saltfish and sometimes other ingredients.Peppers are indigenous all over the Caribbean and are commonly used to spice up dishes such as marinated jerk meats. Manioc, sweet potatoes and yams are served as a side dish or deep fried. There is heavy trustfulness on fish, including conch and shellfish.B. Identify the Caribbean country or island 1. Sofrito Cuba and Puerto Rico 2. Picadillo Cuba 3. Jerk Foods Jamaica 4. Sancocho Dominican Republic 5. Moros y Cristianos Cuba 6. Habichuelas con Dulce Dominican Republic.

Skeletal Disease Essay Example for Free

Skeletal Disease EssayI know that skeletal disease pertain to the bones in the body. These can be foul and limit the ability to move around and befool a good, solid range of motion. I know that skeletal diseases are treated by orthopedics diagnose and treat disorders with bones and orthopedic surgeons operate on the bones. I would analogous to know what the range of treatments are based upon the diseases. I also would like to know the statistics on skeletal disease and how common it is within America and other countries, such as which has the highest amount of bone cancer and which has the lowest? These questions matter to me, especially the ones pertaining to cancer. I would like to know about more skeletal diseases in general.My skeletal disease that I chose is bone cancer otherwise know as sarcomas. I chose this one because cancer has always fascinated me. The one thing that kills a lot of individuals across the world non just the States and the bigger countries but no c ountry is exempt. Cancer does not care who it takes, their age, gender, sexual preference, nothing matters to cancer. I want to study cancer in hopes of perhaps finding a common pattern that can one day be overcome and then cancer can be eliminated for good.My search started where virtually all research papers start, on Google. I searched bone cancer and picked the medical website on cancer. This website gave me good information on the different types of bone cancers and how to restrain the difference between bone cancer, bone marrow cancer, and cancers that migrate to the bones. My other website (http//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21166/full.) gave me statistics on the amount of rising cases and deaths in United States of America with new cases and new deaths.I learned, from the first site, that there are many different actual bone cancers like Osteosarcomas, Chondrosarcomas, Ewing tumour, Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma (MFH), Fibrosarcoma, Giant cell tumor of bone , Chordoma. These all have different causes and effects but one thing they all have in common is that they all originate in the bones, not in bone marrow or other organs and metastasizes to the bones. Cancer cells that start in other organs and move to the bone still have same structure as where they began.

Food and Street Foods Essay Example for Free

aliment and Street Foods EssayIntroduction Bulacan was officially called Bulacan Province, is a front class province of the Republic of the Philippines located in the Central Luzon Region (Region 3) in the island of Luzon, North of Manila (the nations capital), and part of the Metro Luzon urban Beltway Super Region. Bulacan pries itself for its rich historical heritage. Bulacan has fast become an ideal tourist destination, owing to its vital role in Philippine history, and its rich heritage in culture and the arts.The province is popularly known for its historical sites nostalgic old houses and churches idyllic ecological attractions religious attractions colorful and enchanting festivals swimming and various themed attractions and a wide selection of elegant native crafts and sumptuous delicacies. It is also home to numerous resorts, hotels, restaurants, and other recreational facilities. (Wikipedia).The briskness of Street feeds in Bulacan can be measured by the long queue of consumers everyday in the pabulum outlets in strategic places where street foods like lugaw or Rice Porridge, goto, mami, fish balls, cook out banana, salted peanuts and chicken pops. (Toledo, 1988) Street Foods is a Survival Meals, maybe because it satisfies the gustatory sense for a temporary period of time. (Soledad Leynes, 1986) In such case, eating onward from home due to the changes in occupation and activities created a demand for cooked meals and snacks at a cheaper and affordable price that are served quickly.Dual career, parents and small families who really drive home no time to prepare their meals at home resort to street foods for convenience. These people seem not to care for the food source whether it comes from the legitimate food merchants or from the informal sector, otherwise called black market. (Soledad Leynes, 1986) Street foods, whether snacks or meals are affordable and always available, which are very popular among the low income households to a comm odious extent and increasingly a daily fare among the middle income groups.Households with working mothers are afforded ready to eat meals without the burden of cooking at home. Street food caters to the needs of the urban poor population by making food readily available and at low cost. Thus, street food vending is a traditional activity which can be considered a coping mechanism of the urban poor. Street foods are ready-to-eat foods and beverages prepared and/or sold by vendors or hawkers especially in the streets and other similar places.(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) They represent a significant part of urban food consumption for millions of low-and-middle-income consumers, in urban areas on a daily basis. Street foods may be the least expensive and most accessible means of obtaining a nutritionally match meal outside the home for many low income people, provided that the consumer is informed and able to choose the proper combination of foods. (Food a nd Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Statement of the Problem.This need was conducted to assess the Quality of Food Products of Street foods sold by the ambulant vendors along the busy streets and sidewalks of Bulacan. 1. What is the status of the ambulant vendors of Bulacan in terms of 2. 1. Gender 2. 2. old age 2. 3. Civil Status 2. 4. Income 2. 5. Family size 2. 6.Educational attainment 2. What is the nutritional quality of food products sold by the ambulant vendors in Bulacan in terms of 3. 7. Food Supply 3. 8. Food Preparation 3. 9. Food Handling 3. What orientation program could be proposed to the ambulant vendors to improve the nutritional quality and safety of the food?

The women in development perspective

The wo manpower in teaching perspectiveIn the last three decades, the recruitment of women into the modern sector has been at the shopping mall of the development debate in developing countries. Despite m both years of practical feminist activity and numerous studies of everyday life, progress towards gender par still reflects a growing concern. The term women in development is primarily used to refer to operational objectives that incorporate women into the development process. Consequently, this paper will make out that the women in development perspective (WID) generates a useful approach because it clearly explores many dimensions of womens subordination issue in capitalist countries and analyses gender division of cranch which explain the durability of gender inequality, followed by concrete solutions such as incorporating women into development and providing women with training and education.With Perspective explained that the reason of gender inequality in development c ountries is rooted in the principles of womens subordination. First of all, it is noteworthy that womens invisibility and the unequal treatments are not limited to the house champaign, but exist in all area of society. Keeping in mind that the patriarchal system that placed women under the authority of fathers or husband. Is certainly, taken to mean the dominance of all men oer all women. Patriarchy seems to impose itself in gender relation as well as within capitalist society (Martinez, 2009). I believe that patriarchy is what rises gender divisions because the use of this word characterizes a home(prenominal) mode of production in which men as a class exploit women as a class. It is true that the system in which we live tends to make people perceive women as domestic labourers which reduces them to the subordinate baffles of minors thitherfore women are expected to produce labour power by looking after her husband and children (Martinez, 2009). It is worthy to point out that the title housewife is an evidence of deterioration in the position of women because people see industrialisation as a separation of home and work therefore creates gender inequality. In fact, men have organized capitalism in a way that they maintain patriarchal power, both within the market work and within the home. Basically, men extract surplus labour from women this is shown with the sample of south Asia when the micro-credit program was introduced. Searchers have indicated that most of the credit contracted by women end up in activities control take by the man of the house (Pearson, p. 397). However, based on my understanding of capitalism, I support that women domestic labour which is used to explain gender division which subordinate women should be considered important because even if it is often forgotten, womens domestic labour make a direct economic contribution in capitalist society in term of reproduction.Pursuing this thought further, the male supremacy is frequentl y seen as a strategy for development process because its aim is to shift the burden of women form the development and create a complete hegemonic masculinities which office that the capitalist societies with a high masculinity expectation is specifically looking for certain ways of being and behaving that are associated with dominance and power. This is usual encouraged in male and discouraged in female (Pearson, p. 401). The truth is that as pine as this ideology stays the driven force in developing countries, there will always be a durability of gender inequalities. It is relevant that male violence towards women has s long history which led to the establishment of patriarchy and represents therefore a real creation of male dominance. Keeping in mind that power emanates from force, it weighs the point that men have used numerous practices of subordination such as violence against women to maintain male domination in the house (Martinez, 2009). Unfortunately, male domination exis ts in all societies therefore it becomes the universal accounting of the gender inequalities.The perspective argues that the major complexity of gender inequality is based on the gender division in labour. When looking at the work market, it is relevant that there is a big difference in types of jobs women and men do, the pay they receive, the hours they work and the skills they acquire. Therefore, the society has depicted as we call mens work and womens work proving that manpower in capitalist society is divided and attributed according to gender with womens work being the lower. As stated above, this difference is the reason why people consistently value mens work and regard it as demanding a certain level of skill which most womens work lacks. As a matter of fact, Pearson explains that the Ecofeminism has been established from the head of women as environmental managers because people link both spiritual and conceptual sense between women and nature therefore, figure that env ironmental conservation is more captivate to women (Pearson, p. 391). This hard gender segregation of the workforce is what makes it difficult for women to achieve equal pay with men. Men most of beat occupy the skilled sectors of the workplace for example, in Canada one is more likely to encounter a male manager and female secretary and never the opposite. Looking at this situation, I can single opine that despite the so called equality legislation, the adjustment of earnings between men and women is painfully slow.The perspective provides various solutions to close the gap between men and women. Will be considered only two of them in this paper the integration of women in development and provide required education and training to women. The first world(a) solution of the strategy is to implemented women in development process both as agents and as beneficiaries. This proposition is very interesting because it implies that women should be assigned with a sectionicular roles a nd responsibilities which put them in position to contribute fully in the economic growth. However, the problem with this solution is that it does not solve the issue of womens subordination. Also, speaking of role, how long will it last? Of course, women in development policy recognizes that development moldiness involve both women and men in order to be more effective. In the same thought, capitalist societies are willing to integrate women in development process by creating more and more jobs whether full time or part time, mostly part time jobs in the idea of accommodating women who have family therefore making womens participation in workplace extremely low. I think that women in development perspective misses the point here because, the problem is not that women are left out but that they are integrated into a do gender division labour which always put them in a position of subordinates therefore no matter what particular role women play, it does not wobble the fact that wom en are still disadvantaged relative to men. Basically, the solution does not resolve the contradiction because it restricts the choice of jobs open to women and I do not think that encouraging part time employment suggest any possibility of future changes in womens social status and economic relationships.The second solution is to provide women with the required training and education. Indeed, in developing countries, the prestige of receiving an education and training may be the key factor in setting womens participation in development. The point if I understand well is to eliminate illiteracy and basic education by introducing whatever new programs. For sure this will reduce any obstacles to the participation of women in the economic growth. Moreover, I think this solution is reasonable because the reality is that in developing countries, the lack of knowledge and essential training has led to the development in which women are excluded as participants. However, there is a little concern about this project. When looking around the world, one can notice that women await barriers in education because of religious, economic and cultural consideration. For instance, in term of economic, not all women possess the resources needed to pay the education fees. In addition, the program itself must meet the women availability such as the time of the day, the duration of the program and its location. Another thing that is wrong with this proposition is that the education and the training do not reflect or they are not linked to employment opportunities that will permit them to put in application what they have learnt. Furthermore, in this context, it is particularly lighten to examine the field of the program because if the training is for example focusing on liberal art, then I think it would be a waste of time because it might not be necessary linked to a job opportunity.Finally, as it appears, several of the constitutive explanations of gender inequalities in devel oping countries is that in cerebration about womens subordination and the gender division labour, one must accord full weight to their affects on the development process. Indeed, the women in development perspective provides a useful approach and offers concrete solutions, even if they still show some concern. One must actually pause and recognizes that the task is to learn how to participate in a constructive development and to put committed efforts in order to apply those solutions in the social relations and redress the worldwide gender inequality.

Compare And Contrast Federalism Under Fdr Politics Essay

Compare And Contrast Federalism Under Fdr Politics EssayFederalism, a policy-making administration which is aimed on establishing a strong central brass -which in return is constitutionally mandated to share equal federal agencys with its local and state giving medications. It sounds straight and simple but galore(postnominal) of American historys most enduring and complicated issues have resulted because of this political concept. Before the passage of the US constitution -there were people at one location of the political confederacy the pro-nationals, demanding a strong national government as the key answer for bringing America on its feet after its independence from the British art object there were some, pro-states- who believed in investing all the powers in the states as the only solution. The American constitution -later adopted by the founders of the country is a blend of these some(prenominal) sides embedded with federalism. Even, after this historical political settlement -there have been US leaders previously and now- who tend to favor and accordingly set their governments policies either macrocosm a pro-national or pro-state. For the purpose of this essay, I will be comparing and contrasting federalism under the administration of specific US presidents -FDR, Nixon, Clinton and scrub.Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) came into power during the worst frugal crisis-the great depression-in the American history. He expanded the governments power not just on central take but at municipal, state and local level as well -in order to better happenle the loss caused by the great depression. His philosophy was no matter how big a government faculty get -it should have involvement and be responsible for its citizens .Its purpose should be to serve the common man on the street. His government was fundamentally dedicated on creating a political system which is largely focused on the welfare and care of its people to help them out and pull the co untry out of this frugal mess -where banks, stocks and all other major government financial institutions had collapsed. He formulated a program calling it the New Deal which involved on large scale federal-state cooperation in funding and power sharing. He initiated the welfare system, social insurance for the poor, elderly and the unemployed. According to FDR, the only way for the recovery would be if both the central and state governments worked together in joint effort-sharing equal powers. Through this transfer and shuffling of power, he established a system of doubled federalism. He is the spearhead of many federal and state run programs that are running in the country today-directly affecting the lives of the millions living in here. I personally feel he was the first one to truly practice federalism in its essence- in his every day policy making and administration while being in power.When republican president Nixon took office, like many of his successors before and after him-had his own judgment about the division and assigning powers from the high level -national authority to the lower state or local agencies. He adopted a stricter managerial approach in the effort of making the overall governmental system more efficient and competent. He felt that the central government had been encumbered with unnecessary load of power and policy implementation which on the other hand could be carried out much more efficiently at the local government level. He based his administration on a pro-state approach-directing money and power from the central federal government and into the hands of smaller locally and state run agencies. He did this by mandating grants-in-aid into block grants -a devolution- by transferring power from the central side and giving much authority and money to the smaller state run governments. He believed that such a pro-state federalism will serve the community better as the state and local agencies have the easy access and better unders tanding to reach the areas in need.Bill Clinton like Nixon had main aim of making the federalist government more competent in nature but had a watchful approach towards granting more power to states. He was well aware of the importance of states having its self-direction and powers but not at the cost of putting the central government at a vulnerable position. He viewed states as laboratories for implementing and experimenting policies passed by the national government. Although, passim his reign, Clinton mandated strategies that gave more power to states- but ultimately prospered devolution targeted towards making the national government stable and strong in nature. Unlike Nixon, Clinton was not in favor of smaller state run federalism.George Bush like Clinton shared a similar background before becoming the president. Both were governors but Bush era differed from Clintons in the way Bush adopted, shifted and granted powers to the states. Bush was an ardent advocate of small pro -state federalist government. Bush reversed Clintons proposed policies in regards to making states accountable and liable(p) to the national government- in the matters such as setting national standards and rules for environmental guidelines. Bush made it harder for the central government to overrule and interfere in states decisions .He favored rule implementation by the states and less interference of the central government in the matters of the local government.The debate over federalism and the choice of being a pro-state or pro-national is an age old argument for our country. Our presidents- past and present may had differences in political opinion and formulated different policies geared towards handing more power to either states or national level but all shared the same admiration and regard for the government. They all agreed on the vitality and influence of government in a nation. American Federalism- the main idea seeded by the founders of this great nation -is yet to p lay many roles and touch our lives in many ways in the years to come.

The genesis of elements

The genesis of elementsIntroductionThe periodic table is continu distributivelyy enriched with new elements synthesised by nuclear reactions in laboratories, but only 90 of all the elements number naturally. Those atomic number 18 found between atomic numbers 1 to 92, which is from 1H to 92U, excluding the elements technetium (43Tc) and promethium (61Pm). The latter deuce be made artificially, even off though technetium has been recently discovered in stars.All the elements are made from two fundamental building blocks, the protons and the neutrons, prone the term nucleons. These are packed together into nuclei, with each element containing a different ratio of protons and neutrons in its kernel. The nucleons fecal matter only be produced or eradicate at precise eminent energies, and this occurred at the beginning of the constituteence.What happened the first moments of the mankind of the universe and how were the elements synthesised? are the questions close to which this report is circulated. Using astrophysics to discuss the universe creation is beyond the purpose of this report, and therefore most of the physical equations are excluded. All the terms are explained in simple scientific terms.The areas discussed are how the universe began and how the elements were create in this universe creation seasonline, including any relevant nuclear reaction equations and theories that lead to the creation of the chemical elements as we know them at fall in. 1, 2The medium-larger work stoppage and the origin of the chemical elementsThe most widely driveed theory in cosmology is currently the giant Bang guess, which was based on Einsteins General hypothesis of Relativity (E=mc2). According to this, the universe was once concentrated in a small primeval nucleus of extremely gritty temperature and infinite density.For some(a) reason, that hot, blockheaded state began to expand homogeneously and cool down at an incredibly fast rate. This sudden e xpansion into space, distributing irradiation and matter everywhere uni holdly, gave rise to the behave of the universe and it is cognise with the misleading title Big Bang (even though it was not an explosion but an expansion). The reason that caused this sudden expansion is not known yet, and scientists are still trying to give an answer to this big cosmology question with legion(predicate) research projects taking smudge in this field for the then(prenominal) few decades. It is beyond modern science to define what happened sooner the Big Bang since time and space came into being at that moment. According to this theory the universe is ab knocked step up(p) 15 billion years old.But which are the picture that this Big Bang actually occurred? 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9Universes expansionIn 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the galaxies that befuddle up the universe are moving away from our extragalactic nebula with velocities proportional to thei r distance from us. Hubbles law describes this expansion, stating that the farther a galaxy is from us, the greater its radial speeding of recession.Hubbles equations as follows 9v (radial velocity) = H (Hubble constant) x d (distance)In simple terms this means that the most distant galaxy is moving away from us at the fastest rate and the nearest at the slowest.This, however, does not mean we are at the centre of the universe, since every observer in the universe sees all objects moving away from them with velocity proportional to the distance. So although the universe is expanding, it looks the same from every single galaxy.Hubbles conclusions resulted from observing the velocities via the redshift, which is the Doppler Effect applied to light waves. Each galaxy has a set of emissions and absorptions seen in their spectra and their characteristic frequencies are known. The characteristic lines from galaxies spectra turn fall out to move towards the red end of the spectrum, which means the galaxies are receding from us. This resultant role is known as the redshift. If the galaxies were moving towards us the light waves would be crowded and the frequency would be raised. Since the hot light is of towering frequency, a shift towards the blue side of the spectrum would be obtained, giving a blueshift. But this does not occur, and the galaxies are all redshifted.The proportional relationship between speed and distance indicates that in the yesteryear all the matter moldiness have been concentrated at a point of extraordinary high density, from which it expanded to its present body-build. Hubbles discovery provides one of the evidence for the Big Bang Theory. 6, 9, 11Cosmic Background RadiationIn 1965, Penzias and Wilson were investigating the radio noise found at wavelengths between a few millimetres and a few centimetres, by means of a special low-noise radioantenna. Once all the known sources of noise were identified, a remaining signal of radiation was left as an annoying excess noise. This signal was approach shot from all directions and the noise did not change in intensity with the direction of the antenna in the sky or the time of day and season. This radiation was identified to be Cosmic Background Radiation.The radiation that Penzias and Wilson discovered was seen as the dying remnants of the Big Bang, and was probably make overdue to photon production from matter-antimatter annihilation. Once the photon background was produced, it cooled with the expansion of the universe leaving behind this background radiation. This radiation contains more than nothing than the rest of the universe (stars and galaxies).In the universes ahead of time life, when it was very hot, radiation could not travel very far without being absorbed and emitted by some particles. This constant exchange of energy maintained a state of thermal equilibrium and therefore a thermal spectrum can now be obtained.In 1989, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite was launched which took measurements from higher(prenominal) up the earths atmosphere, obtaining more accurate results for this radiation than Penzias and Wilson. The shape of the spectrum of thermal radiation that was observed at the temperature of 2.73K was very similar to that of a blackbodys spectrum at the same temperature. The cosmic atomise spectrum shows that this radiation was generated in equilibrium conditions since it has a thermal shape. The radiation is also known as the 3K radiation or the Cosmic (comes from all directions) Blackbody (because of its ghostly shape) nuke (since its spectrum peaks at cm to mm wavelengths) Radiation CBM.In 2001 the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was launched by NASA, designed to determine the geometry, content and evolution of the universe and to bedevil fundamental measurements of cosmology. WMAP successfully produced a full-sky map of the temperature anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation, and it still get overs to collect data from space.The results from the different measurements of the cosmic background radiation taken through years are shown in the figure following.Furthermore, the measured uniformity of the radiation confirmed some assumptions about some of the universes properties its homogeneity (it looks the same at each point) and its isotropy (it looks the same in all directions).To summarise, two evidences supporting the Big Bang Theory have already been discussedThe Big Bang Theory explains Hubbles observation that the universe is expanding, since it must have started its expansion from a hot and dense state in its early on life.It accounts for the existence of the cosmic background radiation observed by Penzias and Wilson, and confirms the assumptions that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic. The third evidence for the theory is that it accounts for the origin and the abundances of the light elements that exist in the universe. 6, 7, 9, 12, 14Th e timeline of the Big BangBefore the Big Bang the universe was compressed into a hot and dense nucleus. When the Big Bang occurred, the universe began to decompress cursorily. The modern science has not yet delimitate what happened earlier than Plancks time which is at 10-43s after the Big Bang. At that time the four labors of nature were unified in a single super force (also referred to as Wald), being equally powerful.The four forces are divided in the next two categoriesForces between particles (operate over large distance)ElectromagneticGravityForces in subatomic domain(operate over very short distances)Strong nuclear force (it holds the nuclei of atoms together)Weak nuclear force (it crops up in radioactive disintegrate and helps fission)The forces strength is as follows Strong Electromagnetic Weak GravityIn the primeval fireball formed after the Big Bang, the photons energy was so high that they can collide to form particles (creation of matter from light and validation of matter and antimatter in pairs. This is seen from the Einsteins equation, E=mc2, which doesnt say that this relationship is irreversible. So matter can cause energy or energy can become matter 5, 9, 10Some important terms, which are mentioned on the above timeline, are very briefly explained to a lower place 9, 10Quarks are the elementary particles that make up the protons, neutrons etc. A proton is made out of three quarks 2 up and 1 down quark. Neutron is made out of 2 downs and 1 up.The antimatter has the same properties as the regular matter except that it has the opposite electrical charge.Inflation is the early phase of the exponential growth of the universe.Baryons are particles made out of 3 quarks. Out of those particles only protons and neutrons are stable therefore the baryonic matter in the universe is considered to be made mostly out of them. The electrons are often included in the term baryons even though they are not made out of three quarks. The universe has ne utral charge, i.e. 1 electron for every proton.Radiation what we see in the universe comes from electromagnetic radiation. The light is made up from individual particles, the photons, ?. These protons spread at the speed of light, and (mostly the high energy ones) can interact with baryons and electrons for example they ionise an atom by taking off an electron.Neutrinos are extremely weak interacting, mount slight particles produced in radioactive break downThe particles that were present in this cosmic nucleosynthesis are given in the following tableIn general, the universe is made out of the following 10Baryons (p, n, e)Radiation (photons)Neutrinos distressing Matter and EnergyNuclear Processes taking place during the element geological formationThe light elements of the periodic table were produced during the beginning of the life of universe, whereas the heavier elements were produced later by atomic reactions that power the stars.The early universe could be viewed as a type of thermonuclear reactor. However, the abundances of the light elements produced soon after the Big Bang, have changed at present due to the nuclear processes in stars and other subsequent events in the interstellar medium.Some of the reactions taking place during the life of the universe until now are shown on the following table.Element AbundancesThe abundance of the elements is the third evidence supporting the Hot Big Bang theory as seen earlier. These abundances are obtained from detailed spectroscopic abstract of samples taken from earth, meteorites, comets, moon, planets etc.The chemical element abundances can be recorded in three different ways 16Mass part the mass of a constituent of a mixture over the total mass of all the constituents in the mixture w = a / (a+b+c+)Volume fraction the volume of a constituent of a mixture over the sum of the volumes of all constituents before mixing. For gases, the volume fraction is similar to the mole fraction ? groin fraction the n umber of moles of a constituent over the total amount of all constituents in the mixture xThe graph has some certain features and trends which are seen below 1, 2There is an approximately exponential decrease from H until A100 (atomic mass number) or Z42 (atomic number). Then, gradual decrease is observed.For higher A, the rarity of synthesis increases showing that the stellar evolution (which builds the heavier elements) is not very common.A peak is seen between Z=23-28, i.e. for elements V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni. At the maximum of the peak lies iron, and it is seen that Fe is 103 times more abundant than expected compared to its neighbouring elements.The e-process (equilibrium). Iron lies on the maximum energy that can be released in stellar nucleosynthesis with the element burning processes. by and by this, the elements form mostly by neutron capture.The elements D, Li, Be, B are rare compared to their neighbouring H, He, C, N which are highly abundant.Their production is insuffic ient. Also they are consumed at very high temperatures in the stellar interiors. These elements are mostly made by stellar spallation.Light nuclei up to Z21 having their A divisible by 4 are more abundant than their neighbours. This was observed by G. Oddo in 1914.These elements are alpha particle nuclei (e.g. O16, Ne20Ca40, Ti48). It is seen that the He-burning and alpha-process are more efficient than the H-burning and s-process in these regions.Double peaks can be seen at A = 80, 130, 196 (peaks due to neutron capture with r process) with A = 90, 138, 208 (due to neutron capture with the s process)Magic numbers at N = 50, 82, 126 for progenitors and stable nucleiAtoms with even atomic mass number, A, are more abundant that those with odd A, therefore the alternate peaks (up and down) are seen in the graph.Heavy atoms tend to be neutron rich. Proton rich laboured nuclei are rareThis is because the proton- rich nuclei are produced in the p- process which is rare compared to the r- and s- processes.The r and s peaks seen in the following smoothed curve correspond to the elements formed by the slow and rapid neutron capture processes. Some elements require the neutron capture to be slow enough so that intervening beta disintegrates can occur. However, some other elements need neutron capture to happen very fast to be able to form through some short-lived nuclei. 18Big Bang NucleosynthesisThe Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) occurred a few brief moments after the beginning of the universe, way before the stars existed. The light element formation happened via nuclear union reactions (a process by which smaller nuclei are joined into larger ones), which raged throughout the universe. It is also known as Cosmic or Primordial Nucleosynthesis.For nuclear reactions to occur, some conditions should be present, which were two satisfied in the early universeThe temperature and density should be high enough, so that the kinetic energy of nucleons can overcome the coulom b barrierThe particles must come close enough for the attractive nature of the strong nuclear force to overcome the repulsion of the electromagnetic force between the positive charges of the particles (protons).As seen earlier, the universe was born by expansion from a hot, dense state in which its constituents were elementary particles. Atomic nuclei, except from the proton, began to form through nuclear fusion reactions, which could not take place until the temperature was low enough for them to occur. When the universe was about 1 second old, protons became available for fusion, and a proton and neutron can be combined to form a deuteron. However, the deuteron was destroyed by photodissociation (break up of a nucleus by high energy gamma rays) before the more stable atomic number 2 was formed. At this stage fusion could not proceed further until the universe was cooled further.At about 100s after the Big Bang, the temperature had fallen to 109K and fewer deuterons were destroyed , allowing 4He to form, along with all the isotopes of total heat and helium below 4. No considerable amounts of elements above nucleus 4 were formed since there are no stable nuclei of atomic number 5 and 8. However, traces of 7Li and 7Be were formed.At 1000s, the temperature had fallen too low for particles to have enough energy to overcome the coulomb barrier. Therefore, the fusion reactions stopped occurring and the abundances of the elements were frozen. Most matter existed as proud gas for a few hundred million years until it was slowly drawn towards a star, where more reactions could take place, due to higher temperatures.The only nucleus formed in a considerable amount was 4He, with some traces of lighter nuclei. Most of the material continued to be 1H.Light element formationDeuteron formation through fusion of a proton with a neutron gives out a photon of high energy (gamma ray). Most of the energy is carried away with this gamma ray, allowing the proton and neutron to f ollow. Otherwise, they would bounce off each other. The reversible reaction is also true, so a gamma ray can destroy the deuteron.n + p d + When there is not anymore sufficient energy and collisions to form many deuterons, they start combining to form helium nucleid + d 4He + However, some two step processes can occur between the proton, neutrons and deuterons to form the helium and hydrogen isotopes, 3He and 3H, as a between step. These two step processes arep + d 3He + n + 3He 4He + andn + d 3H + p + 3H 4He + These processes can happen in the forward or backward way, until they reach equilibrium.Neutron decayIn the early universe, the temperature was high enough for free protons and neutron to exist in thermal equilibrium at high energies. The free neutrons would travel long distances before colliding with other baryons, having a great chance of decaying into protons.n + ve p + e- + 0.8MeV (ve is e- neutrino)ref.2When the thermal energy drops below 0.8MeV it is hard for ba ckward reaction to occur and therefore more neutrons decay into protons, setting the ratio of np to 15. However, as soon as the energy falls more (about 0.1MeV) the neutrons manage to form nuclei and become stable, with the ratio now being np to 17 due to further reduction of the number of neutrons by decay that occurred in the time that it took for the energy to fall.As seen, the only elements produced in significant abundance are 1H and 4He. 4He is formed since it is the most stable of the light elements and 1H is present since there are not enough neutrons to react with the protons (17 ratio of neutrons to protons) and a large amount of protons are left over.In universes primordial piece 4He is found to be about 25% (mass fraction). Since 4He is four times heavier than 1H, it implies that there is one helium nucleus for every twelve hydrogen ones. Other elements abundances are (compared to 1H abundance) D =10-4, 3He = 10-5, 7Li = 10-10 ref.2The mole fraction of the elements is H 88.6% and 4He 11.3%. Since H and He account for 99.9% of the atoms in the universe, it is conclude that nucleosynthesis of heavier elements has not yet gone very far. ref.4At present, the observed abundances of the elements are successfully reproduced by the Big Bang Theory (providing an evidence for the theory). However, the present composition of the universe is slightly altered from its primeval composition, because of the nuclear reactions occurring in stars.Stellar NucleosynthesisStellar nucleosynthesis is the fusion process that powers the stars, forming heavier elements out of the lighter ones. The main reactions taking place during this process are summarised in the table below, and then discussed more broadly.Hydrogen burningHydrogen burning is the fusion of four hydrogen atoms to form a helium one. This happens through two different routes ref.6Proton-proton chain. This is the primary energy producing process in most stars, especially in low mass stars like our Sun, and is as follows)p + p d + e+ + vep + d 3He + 3He + 3He 4He + p + pThe fusion of two protons to form a deuteron (the nucleus of a heavy hydrogen atom with 1p 1n)3He is an isotope of helium with 2 p and 1 n4He is the most common isotope of helium, having 2p and 2n.In the 1st step takes a very long time to occur (5109 years), since it involves the weak nuclear force and there is a very small cross section. This is the reason for the long life of stars. The 2nd step involves the electromagnetic interaction and occurs in about 1 second, whereas the 3rd step involves the strong nuclear force, taking about 3105 years.CNO cycle. It is another method for burning of hydrogen, using carbon, newton and oxygen as catalysts. These get consumed so as to help the process occur, but are afterwards reformed.p + 12C 13N + 13N 13C + e+ + vep + 13C 14N + p + 14N 15O + 15O 15N + e+ + vep + 15N 12C + 4HeNitrogen nucleus decaysOxygen nucleus decaysHelium Burning (triple-alpha reaction)Hydrogen bur ning releases 90% of the total energy available from fusion. The rest is coming half from the helium burning and the other half from other nucleus burnings up to 56Ni or 56Fe. However, since 5Li and 8Be are unstable, fusion after He can continue only at high density.During the triple-alpha process three 4He nuclei fuse to form 12C. Then, helium and carbon react so as to form oxygen.Some reactions are4He + 4He 8Be An almost 100% reversible process since 8Be is highly unstable.4He + 8Be 12C* An excited state of 12C is formed and almost all decays back to He and Be.12C* 12C + e+ + e- However, about 0.2% decays into a stable carbon nucleus.When the 8Be barrier has been passed and the triple-alpha process forms carbon, the following also can occur4He + 12C 16O + 4He + 16O 20Ne + Carbon BurningThe carbon burning follows when the star has run out of helium fuel. This can give three different products.12C + 12C 20Ne + 4He23Mg + n23Na + pOxygen burning etc.Oxygen burning 16O + 16O 28Si + 4HeNeon Burning 4He + 20Ne 24Mg + A 28Si can dissociate into 7 4He and react in silicon burning.Silicon Burning 28Si + 74He 56Ni (which can then ?-decay to 56Fe during or after a type II supernova)From the above reactions protons, neutrons and alpha particles are released, which are then available for additional captures so as to form further isotopes of the elements.The mass barriers in the element formationIn 1939 Bethe observed that no elements heavier than helium can be built up to any appreciable extent, since there are no stable elements of mass 5 nucleus.No reasonable ways of formation of elements could be given, since none of them would workThe addition of a neutron or a proton onto helium can not occur to form a mass 5 nucleus (unstable)The direct formation of 8Be out of two 4He is not possible due to the fact that 8Be is very unstable, with negative binding energyThe formation of 12C out of three helium nuclei would not work either.However, at sufficiently high temper ature and density 4He can bind to form 8Be and therefore the mass 4 barrier can be passed. This beryllium formed, even though very unstable and at low quantities in the star interiors, it is enough to form 12C when another helium nucleus is added to it (Salpeter, 1952). Once the unstable mass 5 and 8 barriers are overcome, moreelements can be formed.Beyond the Iron Peak Explosive NucleosynthesisThe normal nuclear fusion reactions occurring in the star interiors can only form elements up to iron, 56Fe. They do not produce any elements beyond the iron peak since this would require energy rather than yielding energy. Beyond the iron peak, elements can be formed principally by neutron captures. After 83Bi, no more stable isotopes can be formed. Neutrons are produced by some of the processes seen earlier, and one of the most favoured one is13C + 4He 16O + nIn stars, mass loss processes, where a return back to the interstellar medium material occurs which is however altered from when i t formed the star, are very common. These can be mild and form planetary nebulas, or can be violent and catastrophic explosions, known as novae and supernovae. During the latter processes, heavy elements are form rapidly before or after the explosion with neutron captures.The two main types of neutron capture synthesising the heavy elements have been briefly discussed earlier (see p.13) and they are the followingS-process (Slow neutron capture)R-process (Rapid neutron capture)An unstable species has to decay before capturing another neutron, and therefore the s-process produces the less neutron rich compounds, since the process is slow enough, it allows beta decay by electron emission and the isotopes are stable before a lot of neutrons have been added.However, during the r-process the neutrons are added rapidly and the nuclei do not have enough time to decay, allowing more neutrons to be added until they can not accept any more. This process forms the more neutron rich elements.Oth er processesThe proton rich isotopes of the heavy elements are formed by the p-process, i.e. proton captures.The elements 2H, 3He, 6Li, 7Li, 9Be, 10B and 11B, as well as some less neutron rich isotopes are not produced in significant amounts form the Big Bang and are less abundant than their neighbours. They are mostly formed during spallation reactions (fragmentation), during which more abundant elements (like C, N and O) are broken up in reactions between cosmic rays and the interstellar gas.The cosmic rays consist of small subatomic particles (mainly p and He nuclei) which travel through our atmosphere from space at the speed of light. They are created in supernovae and some star interactions. The particles in the cosmic rays are accelerated by the galaxys magnetic field and fly towards every direction.During their journey around the galaxy, the heavier particles of the cosmic rays collide with the atoms in the interstellar matter (mostly 1H and 4He), causing fragmentation, produ cing those lighter elements.NovaSome stars in the galaxy for binary systems, in which there are two stars revolving around each other. If their masses are different the bigger star will break faster and at some point their atmospheres combine, causing instabilities to form, resulting to an outburst of energy and matter as an explosion. This increases the luminosity of the stars and a nova is seen. During this procedure, heavy elements are synthesised.SupernovaA supernova is a catastrophic stellar explosion during which so much energy is released that all the billions of stars can be outshined by it. It occurs when an evolving star runs out of nuclear fuel, and the core is so unstable that it collapses rapidly (in less than a second). Just before or during this explosion, thousands of nuclear reactions (neutron captures) occur in a very short time, and form heavy elements.The remains of the supernova spread out into space and can be used in the formation of new stars or can be captu red by other evolving stars.ConclusionIn this report some of the well known up to date discoveries of cosmology were discussed. However, the universe is so infinite and mysterious that many questions about its creation and the element formation remain unanswered and plenty of areas are still in dark.NASA is currently the largest organisation performing investigation evolving around important cosmological questions, with its program Beyond Einstein. 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